Fractional Representation and Its Methodology Essay Example for Free

Fractional Representation and Its Methodology Essay There are a great many different ideas and thoughts found in the world of art. In some instances, art draws from sources not routinely associated with art. Such is the case with fractional representation. This is a style of art popularized by the Egyptians that combines spatial images of the same object to create an image. Somewhat rooted in geometry, a common example of this type of art would be the painting of a God whose face was in profile but the eyes are in a frontal position. There is also a great deal of religious symbolism found in this genre of art. In many instances, this type of art is employed to create replications of religious figures. One such example of this can be visible in the wall painting of a ship crossing a river. (http://www. 1destination. com/egypt/images/barque. jpg) In the imagery of this painting, men, gods, and the queen are visible traveling on their boat. The strange spatial imagery gives it a somewhat unearth like feel. In a way, it comes to life but appears to be a vision into another dimension. This is a tremendous visual element, but it also has a profound effect on spiritual sensory aspects. No one can see into the otherworld. This is why the imagery in Egyptian art is so very special. It creates an otherworldly appearance. This has a mesmerizing psychological effect on those who view it. Because it seems like such a realistic vision into another dimension, it provides additional re-enforcement on a subconscious level of belief in the gods. Also, the presence of royalty in the picture would have the effect of subconsciously equating Egyptian royalty with the gods.

The Effects of Athlete Self-Confidence

The Effects of Athlete Self-Confidence 2.0 Introduction The purpose of this review is to provide a critical analysis of the available literature on sources, levels and importance of self confidence. It explores theories relating to self-confidence and the various measurements that have been used in recent years to assess this construct. The focus of the review will aim to analyse firstly self confidence and the importance of it among sport performers, it will highlight various studies and identify that self confidence is spilt into constructs, which in turn leads on to identifying self efficacy and sport confidence. The review will also look at different sources of sport confidence and which are most salient to elite and non elite athletes, and finally it will give a brief rationale to why the study is being taken out. 2.1 Self confidence Defining self-confidence within the sport psychology literature has emerged as a difficult issue (Taylor Wilson, 2005). However, Vealey and Chase (2008) defined self-confidence as the belief in ones abilities to achieve success, and is often identified as an important mental skill for success in sport by those individuals engaging in competitive sports, including both athletes and coaches. Self confidence is suggested to be the paramount contributor and the most critical cognitive factor affecting an athelets success (Spink,1990). Similarly, (Vealy et al 1998), suggests that self confidence is widely accalaimed by theorists, researchers, and practioniers as the most critical psychological characteristic influencing a sport performance. This ultimately suggests that self confidence is a subject topic central in influencing an athletes performance and in turn crucial in investigation. Lirgg (1991) similarly to Vealey (1998) stated that Self-confidence has been the subject of much research in recent years in the sport psychology literature (p,294-310). The perception of ones own abilities has been frequently cited as a mediated construct in attainment strivings and as a psychological factor affecting athletic performance. One of the most important relationship is between confidence and performance, from past literature Weinbourg Gould (2003,p,311) state is clear that there is a positive relationship between confidence and performance (Vealey 2001), however the factors affectiong this relationship are less known. Factors such as organizational culture, gender and age have been suggested as important. Taking into account relationships confidence has with different mediating factors, it is also important to recognise it as a complicated construct. Confidence has been operationalized in numerous ways (Feltz, 1988). It has been categorised into constructs such as self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986, 1977), perceived competence, sport-confidence(Vealey,1986 Vealey 1998 et al), expectancies (Rotter, 1954), and movement confidence (Griffin Keough, 1982) these have all been proposed as measuring an individuals perception of his or her abilities (Lirgg 1991). Self confidence affects the way one feels, thinks and behaves, and thus has an important influence upon sporting performance, Bandura.,(1997) Jones and Hanton,(2001). Self confidence might be something one feels one day therefore unstable or it may be part of oness personality. It has been thought by Clifton Gill, (1994) that a high level of self confidence is one of the most consistently reported psychological characteristics of elite athletes ( p,150). However, despite claims about the importance of self confidence to performance, Feltz (2007) declares that its relationship with performance has not been clear in much of the sport science research in turn suggesting areas for development in research. However in contrary to Feltz (2007) a psychological research study conducted by Jones et al (1994) and Edwards Hardy (1996) illustrate the importance of high levels of confidence in athletes success. The research presented a positive correlation between self confidence and skilled performers, however it is still in debate as to whether the relationship perceived is a casual or a direct one (Feltz 1988). Taking into account this literature review, it was copiously apparent that during conducting interviews Jones Hardy found that within athletes minds, self confidence was extrememly significant especially if they were to attain the levels of performance which they sought (Jones,Hardy Gould 1996). This in turn reinforces the consequence of self confidence on performance and how it must be present if success is required. An additional study that has been conducted to emphasise self confidence in athletes is Mahoney et al (1987) who carried out an experiment which identified psychologic al skills in elite and non elite performers. There use of instrumentation was a questionnaire they issued it to 713 athletes from 23 sports, the results proved that elite performers had higher and more stable levels of self confidence than the non elite athletes therefore was suggested that there were major differences factoring between elite and non elite performers. Another theory surrounding the notion of self confidence was founded by Feltz (2007) who identified the self concept theory, he emphasises that even though a number of terms are associated to self-confidence it should, however not be confused with the construct, and that Self-concept represents an amalgamated view of oneself that is developed during evaluative experiences and social interactions. In congruence with what Bandura has previously distinguished, Fetlz (2007) also recognizes however, that a global self-concept will not envisage the intra-individual variability in performance as well as self-confidence discernment which vary across activities and circumstances. Within the domain of self confidence there appears to be two main approaches to the study and measurement of self confidence in sport: sport confidence and self-efficacy. Sport confidence (Vealey, 1986) refers to the belief that an athlete possesses about his or her ability to be successful in sport in general (trait sport confidence) and in specific sport competitions (state sport confidence). Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986) refers to an individuals belief in his or her capabilities to be successful in executing specific tasks and skills in specific situations, and is measured in terms of the strength, level, and generality of self-efficacy. Banduras (1986) self efficacy theory and Vealeys (1986) sport confidence model present quite diverse approaches to confidence. Self efficacy is very much a situation specific conceptuilaistion in comparison to the sport confidence model which is far more generalised. An explicit strength that the sport confidence model exemplifies is is its parsim onious approach, this is proven on the basis that its logical and in turn an accurate tool for sport psychologists to use. However at a more contextual level the specificity of self efficacy can be used more efficiently. Feltz and Chase (1998) stated that Vealeys notion of sport-confidence shares similarities with Banduras conceptualization of self-efficacy on the basis that they are both built around the social cognitive theory. Subsequently, both can be regarded as cognitive mechanisms through which individuals mediate their motivation and behavior within a goal context. 2.2 Self efficacy: Self efficacy is an identifiable and important attribute within sport. Coaches, players and psycholoigists all recognize the power-full and imperative effects that this psychological construct can have on behaviour, feelings and thoughts (Feltz,short Sullivan 2008) . It is important to understand that expectation of efficacy will by no means produce a desired performance, providing that the component cabilities are lacking. A study that has become increasingly accepted is that of Banduras (1977) self efficacy theory, this theory was initially progressed within the construct of social cognitive theory (Feltz Chase,1998). The theory proclaims that individual self confidence derives from self efficacy levels. Self efficacy simply represents a form of situation specific to self confidence (Hardy ,Jones Gould,1996). Feltz states that the terms self confidence and self efficacy have been used to describe ones perceived capability to accomplish a certain level of performance. Bandura defines self efficacy as; The conviction one has, to execute successfully, the behaviour required to produce a certain outcome and thus, can be considered a situational specific slef confidence. Whereas, Vealey (1986). Defines self efficacy as the belief or degree of certainty individuals possess about their ability to be successful in sport (p.222). Short Stewart (2008, p223) states that Self-efficacy is defined as beliefs in ones capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments (Bandura, 1997: p.3). Both self confidence and self efficacy relate to individuals perceived capability to aquire a certain level of perfromace (Bandura, 1986; Feltz, 1988). The fundamental principle surrounding the self efficacy theory is that different levels of self efficacy in turn predict actual performance assuming that necessary skills and incentives are present ( Weiss, Weise and Kilint 1989). Self-efficacy is not considered, by Bandura (1977, 1986, 1997), to be a synonym for self-confidence. However, many people concerned in area of sport psychology often use the terms interchangeably since the latter is far more familiar to athletes and those not in the academic arena. Short and Stewart (2008) claim that Bandura (1997) prefers the use of self-efficacy over self-confidence ( p.224). In relation to athletes Hardy, Jones and Gould (1999) suggest that elite athletes with high levels of self efficacy put under a high pressured situation should in turn allow them to maintain their commitments to difficult goals, and increase persistence. This will in turn allow them to attribute their failure to unstable factors appose to stable factors this therefore can draw comparison with how non elite athletes attribute their failure which inturn are down to factors such as; stable factors. Different people who inhabit similar skills such as an elite athelte, or undeniably the same person under different situations might perform poorly, adequately or exceptionally well depending upon fluctuation in their personal effeicacy beliefs (Hays et al, 2007). This is sustained by Bandura (1997) who states that self efficacy beliefs are an important contributor to performance accomplishments, whatever the underlying skill of the performer is (Hays et al 2007). Similar to other subject topics in sport psychology the focus of self-efficacy research studies has varied over time and is reflective of the paradigmatic evolution of the field, Short Sterwart (2008). Bandura (1997) states that the study of self efficacy beliefs in sport should not be limited to physical proficiency it can include all aspects of performance, like game situations, selecting effective strategies, predicting opponents actions, using imagery, managing pressure and distractions. Bandura (1977) questioned how efficacy beliefs are formed, Bandura (1997) theorizes that they are a creation of an intricate process of self appraisal and self persuasion that therefore depends on cogniotive processing. He then branded these sources as past performance accomplishments, Vicarious experiences, Verbal persuasion and Emotional arousal. According to Bandura (1986, 1997) past performance accomplishments is said to be the most significant source of efficacy information for athletes because they are based on their own experiences. There has been overwhelming support for the influence of past performance accomplishments on self-efficacy beliefs (Short Stewart, 2009). Moritz et al. (2000) established, that as an athelete increases thier experience on a specific task over time, performance consequently develops into a stronger predictor of self-efficacy than self-efficacy is of performance. Secondly there is Vicarious experiences, this is derived through observing and comparing oneself with others or with norms (Feltz et al., 2008). It is apparent that through sport, athletes will always be sizing themselves up against other athletes (Short Stewart, 2009). An example of this is based on Weinberg et al. (1980) results, Bandura claimed that a formidable-looking opponent instils lower efficacy beliefs than does one who loo ks less impressive (1997: 18). Consequently, an opponent who appears intimidating will as a result cause their opponents efficacy beliefs to instantly decrease in comparison to an opponent who did not exhibit those qualities. Another source of efficacy, verbal persuasion, takes place when significant others express their support for ones capabilities to succeed. This can comprise of, coaches positive feedback, parents encouragement, and self-talk. Verbal persuasion is an essential factor in motivating individuals to persist in their efforts, if persuaders assessment is within realistic bounds, although on its own is limited (Bandura, 1977). The last source is, physiological efficacy this can manipulate self-efficacy, due to the association people make between the level of physiological arousal/specific emotions and their performances. To illustrate this, an athlete can associate nervousness (e.g. sweaty palms) with a bad performance, feeling nervous about a game could lower his/her self-confidence. Therefore as a result of this it is apparent, that how arousal is interpreted by an athlete influences peoples self-efficacy. Performance accomplishments Vicarious experience Verbal persuasion Emotional arousal Efficacy expectations Maddux (1995) and Schunk (1995) have since proposed there are six sources of efficacy predictors. They have created a separate category for imaginal experiences instead of including it as part of vicarious experiences and have split physiological states from emotional states. Thus, developments from Banduras (1997) self-efficacy theory have led to more sport specific models being introduced (Vealey, 1986, 1998). 2.3 Vealeys Conceptual Model of Sport Confidence Although the theory surrounding self efficacy advanced the area of self confidence enormously it was applied through the wide field of clinical psychology. Vealey (1986) proposed a more applicable and conceptualised model, which has been evidently expanded within the discipline of sport psychology. Vealey believed that the sport confidence model would allow for a more consistent prediction of behaviour across the diverse sporting situations. Delving in more depth in to the subject topic of sport confidence shows that there are three constructs. Firstly trait sport confidence this is considered by (Weinbourg Gould 1999,p,286) the belief or degree of certainty individuals usually posess about their ability to be successful in sport A trait in an individuals personality is predominately stable. Then secondly state sport confidence is (Vealey, 1986, p. 223). state sport confidecnce which is defined as the belief or degree of certainty individuals possess at one particular moment about their ability to be successful in To further this model an extra construct was added, which is comepteive orientation, this progresses from the proposal that success means different things to different people. This construct accounts for individual differences in defining success in sport (Vealey,1988). Competitive orientation was incorporated within the model based on Maehr and Nicholls (1989) idea that success equates to different things and subsequently to different people. Vealey (1998) predicted that SC-trait interacts with competitive goal orientation to elicit a SC-state that directly influences behaviour and performance. Vealey developed three tools in which would allow to test the relationship shows within the model; firstly the state sport confidence inventory (SSCI), Trait sport confidence inventory (TSCI), and the competitive orientation inventory (COI). It has also become apparent that researchers have used the competitive state anxiety inventory-2 (CSAI2), to measure confidence levels in sport situation. A limitation of Vealeys (1986) conceptual model of sport confidence was that it withdrew from compriseing social and organisational factors on the development of athletes. For example, significant others such as coaches and families can have an momentous impact on many athletes confidence levels and research has supported that perceived cultural appropriateness of an activity has been shown to affect confidence levels in males and females (Clifton Gill, 1994; Lirgg, 1991; Lirgg et al., 1996). Vealey et al. (1998) suggested that athletes rely on sources of confidence depending on the activity they are engaged in. Therefore a new model was proposed by Vealey (1998). 2.4 Sources of sport confidence There have been two programmes of research that have investigated the sources of sport confidence. Sources of sport confidence can be defined as the sources that athletes use for judgment of their confidence, for example, where they derive their confidence from. Firstly, Vealeys model of sport confidence which was originally developed over 20 years ago, has now been refined to include sources of sport confidence. The model predicts that demographic, personality characteristics and organizational culture can influence athletes sources of sport confidence. Demographic characteristics include any personal characteristics, such as: age, sex, type of sport. Personality characteristics, attitudes and values of athletes comprise of competitive orientation and self-esteem. The organizational variables encompass motivational climate, competitive level, types of sport, goals, structural expectation of particular sport programmes (Vealey, 2001). Secondly Hay et al.s (2007) recently published a qualitative study on the sources and types of confidence in sport. Short et al (2008) drew comparisons and similarities with Banduras theory of self-efficacy (see table 1). In addition, they also contain unique sources that are specific to athlete populations. The connotation of investigating the sources of confidence in sport has been speculated to have practical and theoretical implications. Firstly theoretically, these sources provide a foundation for levels of self-confidence and subsequent affect (e.g., how an athlete feels), cognition (e.g., what athletes think about during sport) and behaviours (e.g., how an athlete responds). Then looking from a practical standpoint, self-confidence is viewed by numerous athletes as unstable; this over time would seem to be a function of the sources upon which confidence is based (Vealey Sinclair, 1987). It is crucial therefore that when assesing athletes that the investigator identifies the most important aspects to the athlete, before intervening to enhance that confidence. In Short Stewarts (2008) chapter it is identified that Vealey et al (1998) sought to recognize the sources of sport confidence for athletes. Her data was based on samples of high school and intercollegieate athletes. This instantly draws comparison with Hays et al (2007) who sought after sources and types of confidence for identified world class performers. Nevertheless they both illustrate similarities between each other as they both sought after the most important and most valued sources of sport confidence employed and utlised by athletes within a sporting context (shortStewart, 2008). During a study of 500 high school and collegiate athletes from a variety of sports, Vealey et al. (1998) identified nine sources of confidence. These were mastery (i.e., improving or mastering skills), demonstration of ability (i.e., demonstrating or showing off abilities to the opponents), physical/mental preparation (i.e., feeling physically and mentally prepared for competition), physical self-presentation (i.e., ones physical self-image), social support (i.e., perceiving support, positive feedback and encouragement from significant others in sport), vicarious experience (i.e., watching others perform successfully), coachs leadership (i.e., believing coaches leadership abilities), environmental comforts (i.e., familiar with surroundings in environment) and situational favourableness (i.e., feelings that situations are going their way) (see table 1). It is apparent that these sources overlap with the sources that were identified by Bandura (1997) highlighted in the self-efficacy th eory, though are more specific to the context of competitive sport, and also see that there is similairites with Hay et al (2007). Vealey et al. (1998) further examined which sources were the best predictors of sport confidence levels. Futhermore within Vealeys study it was found that several sources were deemed more important than others such as; physical/mental preparation,social support and mastery among was rated in their top five. Vealey also found that other characteristics had an impact on the sources, Vealey identified an aspect such as gender affected the salience of the sources of sport confiedence, (Vealey et al 1998). These nine sources formed the sub-scale structure of the Sources of Sport Confidence Questionnaire (SSCQ; Vealey et al., 1998). Presently, the SSCQ is the only questionnaire designed to assess athletes sources of confidence. Nevertheless, justification for the SSCQ is based upon high school and collegiate athletes and therefore can not be generalised for all athletic groups. Wilson et al.s (2004) study considered the sources of sport confidence in master athletes and even though results were similar, it was infact unsuccessful in replicating the nine sources of confidence in Vealeys et al. (1998) SSCQ. As an alternative then, there were fewer items and the situational favourableness factor was removed. Participants in phase four competed in a team sport. This inventory does not compute self-confidence as a multidimensional construct as it only accounts for the sources of sport confidence, and also does not take into account different types of sport confidence that is evident in more recent research on world class athletes (Hays et al., 2007). Hays et al (2007) suggested that the organisational culture of world class sport differed from other results within previous studies taken out by psychologists such as Magyar Duda,(2000) where they used intercollegiate athletes. It was proven that they differed in terms of where their confidence derived from and whether it is from alternative sources. Flecther,Hanton Mellalieu,(2006) who also identify that organizational culture of world class sport, reinforce that it is likely to differ significantly from that of high school athletes, due to reasons such as; world class athletes are constantly being subjected to additional organizational stressors that will most probably not be present in lower level competition, Hays et al (2007, p436). Demaine and Short (2007) also conducted a study on the sources of sport confidence to examine differences in the sources of sport confidence according to sport involvement factors (i.e., age, total years playing, playing time and athletic scholarship). Participants used were 265 female college basketball players they completed the TSCI and SCI. It became evident thro Results showed that the most popular sources, in order, were: social support, coaches leadership, physical and mental preparation, mastery, demonstration of ability, vicarious experience, environmental comfort, situational favourableness and physical self-presentation. The sources identified by athletes did not differ according to the sport-involvement factors; however, these variables together predicted sport confidence. All of the studies identified in this section refer to quantitative methods. More recently qualitative methodologies have been adopted. 2.5 Individual Differences As well as the research analysed above, many studies have been conducted to understand individual differences such as gender, performance level, and sport type. Results from studies that scrutinize gender difference in self-confidence have been ambiguous. Several studies present that male athletes demonstrate a higher self-confidence than female athletes (Meyers LeUnes, 1996; Trafton et al., 1997), yet, other studies account that there is no apparent gender difference (Cox Whaley, 2004; Perry Williams, 1998). Even though the disparity in the level of confidence between male and female still is uncertain, gender difference seems to subsist in sources of confidence. Within the study by Vealey et al. (1998), females perceived social support and physical self-presentation as more important than the male participants. Previous studies have supported this (e.g., Jones et al., 1991). Hays et al.s (2007) and Gill (1998) studies established that in fact male athletes sources of confidence centred around competitive outcomes. In contrast, the females identified good personal performances as a source of their confidence. However, looking aside from gender and any other characteristic said to affect ones self confidence, Williams (2006) states that if athlete is sufficiently motivated and have become aware of the relationships between their thoughts and behaviour they can in turn develop their self confidence. Self confidence is not only critical to sport performance but also to central to a wide array of behaviours in the wider world out side of sport. An additional individual difference is skill level, it can have a immense influence on levels of self-confidence. Early research conducted by Mahoney et al. (1977) established that the level of pre-competition self-confidence was one of the important differences between US gymnasts. It was reported that the Olympic qualifiers alleged higher, more stable levels of self-confidence in comparison to non-elite athletes. Studies by George (1994) and McPherson (2000); have also supported this statement. Another investigation by Perry and Williams (1998) looked into to the comparison of levels of confidence within different skill levels of tennis players (novice, intermediate, advanced). It was found that the advanced skilled level athletes had significant higher self-confidence than that of the intermediate and novice skilled athletes, however the difference between novice and intermediate athletes deemed no noteworthy difference. A study more recently investigated by Hays et al.s (2007) ex plored how important world class performers rated self confidence. It was exposed that for them have a sense of feeling self-confidence in turn was associated with a triumphant sporting performance, therefore when experiencing low levels of sport confidence, the athletes were probable to a poor performance. It is noticeable that Elite studies principally engage in male athletes (Gill, 1992) and therefore more studies including females would be desired. 2.6 Rationale The literature that has been conversed in this chapter demonstrates the predominate finding that those who possess high levels of confidence are more likely to be successful. The early quantitative research of Vealey has been used as a foundation of sport confidence, recently Hays et al (2007) identified the need for specific research to be specific to elite and non elite athletes. Individual differences such as gender, sport types and performance levels need further investigation. It is therefore the intention of the author to illustrate a comparison of elite and non-elite female netball players of their sources and levels of confidence along side with how important they deem it. It has been devised to try and illustrate the diversity between an athlete who plays under high pressure and strict regime to a player who plays socially, training once a week and occasionally competing in friendly games. Vealey (2001) suggests that more research is needed to fully understand how self confi dence is manifested in the unique context of sport (Hays et al, 2007, p,436).This therefore has a direct impact of the study being taken out as Netball is predominately female led and in relation to the study only female participants will take part. Hypothesis That elite will have higher levels of self confidence and non elite and that elite athelets will rate different sources of self confidence higher and lower than that of non elite ethelets and that there should be a considerable difference

stuff :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Book I of Plato’s Republic, begins with various philosophers and thinkers providing their definitions of ‘justice.’ Each view works with the same motif, by stating that justice unifies a group of people, because it leads to trust and reliance. Arguments are made that justice is more helpful to the powerful, though, in the grand scheme of reality, all are served under the eyes of justice.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Book II of the Republic continues the discussion of justice. Glaucon, a protagonist of the book, is introduced, and provides his three categories of humanity. These include: those who are pleasurable for themselves and their results, those that bring good results (but with difficulty), and those who bring no results (but are pleasurable).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Socrates places justice in the first category of Glaucon’s trilogy. Socrates states: â€Å"I myself put it among the finest goods, as something to be valued by anyone who is going to be blessed with happiness, both because of itself and because of what comes from it† (Republic, Book II 358a). Glaucon claims that justice is the mean between two extremes, placing it in the second category. He defends his argument by using the example of the â€Å"Ring of Gyes,† a magical ring that turns its wearer invisible. He continues to argue that humans, if given the opportunity to be unjust without suffering punishment, would choose a life of injustice, in order to maximize their own interests.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In an attempt to provide a satisfactory definition of justice, Socrates makes an analogy between the justice of an individual human being and of an entire society/city. He continues by building an imaginary city. Socrates states that the fundamental needs of humans are food, shelter, and clothing. However, he is aware that the inhabitants of his imaginary city will want more than basic necessities. He continues to build this politically correct city by adding a specialized class of soldiers, controlling the flow of false information (censorship), making males and females equal under the eyes of the law, and balancing the populations education between philosophy and physical training. This is Socrates ideal city.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Socrates then divides the human soul into three parts: the appetitive, the spirited and the rational.

The Rosetta Stone :: essays research papers fc

Introduction The Rosetta stone the key to the Egyptians I chose the Rosetta stone because of its mysteries and unsolved scripts and hieroglyphics. It occurred to me when I was reading up on Egyptians. I hope to learn the guarded secrets it holds so I can know to decipher the ancient texts and to reveal the secrets of the Egyptians. The Rosetta stone is found in a British museum in London. The Rosetta stone is three feet nine inches long, two feet four and a half inches wide, and eleven inches thick. The Rosetta stone was discovered in 1799 that may mean that it has been lost for almost 1400 years. Athanasius kircher, a German priest of the 1600s, wrote the first grammar and vocabulary of Coptic, the language of the Christian Egypt. The French general Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt with an army of 38,000 soldiers. Egyptians wrote on stones called slabs. In 1802, the Rosetta stone was shipped to England. On august 1st the British army caught the French fleet off guard and completely destroyed Alexandria. After almost one hundred years of deciphering the Rosetta stones hieroglyphics were translated in 1850. The Rosetta stone has three different scripts. People who could write in ancient times were called scribes. Scribes wrote on paper called papyrus. The advance language called Coptic replaced the ancient Egyptians language. Coptic had then had been replaced by a further advanced language called Arabic. Egyptians wrote in sign called hieroglyphics. Instead of the word people in Egyptian language it was called demotic. On July 1,1798 Napoleons army captured the city Alexandria. Napoleon entered the Egyptian capital, Cairo in July on the 21st. Egyptian text that was enclosed in an oval outline is called a cartouche. Cartouche a French word meaning cartridge. French surrender to British September 1801. Jean Franà §ois Champollion was born 1790. Champollion graduated in 1807. Champollion, in 1822 was reserved a position on deciphering the hieroglyphics on the Rosetta stone. Thothmes was a pharaoh who ruled from 1501 to 1447 B.C. A book on hieroglyphics was published in 1824. On March 4, 1832 Champollion died in series of strokes. By 2500 B.C. complete sentences began appearing on tomb inscriptions. Demotic was first known as hieratic. The French discovered the Rosetta stone in 1799. Conclusion The researcher learned that the Rosetta stone is one of the most important artifacts of the Egyptians. It was written in three ancient scripts and is located at the British museum in London.

Humans Senses and Perceptions Essay -- Neurology Biology

Humanity is blessed with at least five senses with which we observe and perceive our surroundings. Although our senses, and sense perceptions indeed are amazing, the knowledge gained by these faculties is sometimes misleading. The reason why our senses, at times, err is twofold, first the sensory organs we are endowed with are not entirely accurate, and are not equipped to perceive and measure all information. The second reason for errors in perception is that we all interpret the data we revived via there organs differently. As Penelope Fitzgerald puts it, â€Å"No two people see the external world in exactly the same way. To every separate person a thing is what he thinks it is -- in other words, not a thing, but a think.† The combination of imperfect sensory organs, selective perception and varying interpretations of the sense data we receive accounts for this â€Å"err.† To begin with, our eyes do not â€Å"see† as clearly as we think they do. The actual raw image coming from our eyes is upside down, blurry and interlaced with blood vessels. Then, our mind corrects this image and fills in the gaps with whatever it presumes to be correct. However, our brain's perceptions of what is correct varies greatly. Despite this the question assumes that our senses are perfect, which they are clearly not. I would contend that it is because we only have eyes to see with and ears to hear with that we err; because we only have these faculties our brain must compensate, and everyone compensates differently. Society is fascinated by the flaws in our perception, using it for entertainment, and more recently in advertisements. The advertising industry is able to manipulate images and words in order to create the desired perception of the product. In this... ...( hearing and site) as the foundation for knowledge about the world around us. Works Cited "Philosophy: Philosophy of Perception."  ORIENTALIA | Journal of Eastern Philosophy & Culture: Papers, Dictionaries, Forum, Books Reviews. Web. 15 Jan. 2011. . "Psychology Notes : Sensation and Perception."  AlleyDog.com - Psychology Students' Best Friend. Web. 15 Jan. 2011. . Chisholm, Roderick. "Gettier Problems - Page 4 - Philosophy - Wattpad."  The World's Most Popular EBook Community . Web. 15 Jan. 2011. . "3 Quotations from Penelope Fitzgerald."  Linguaspectrum - Interesting English Lessons!  Web. 15 Jan. 2011. .

The Pirate Bay

C ASE S TUDY The Pirate Bay: The World's Most Resilient Copyright Infringer? The Pirate Bay (TPB), a Swedish Web site (Piratebay. org), is one of the world's most popular pirated music and content sites, offering free access to millions of copyrighted songs and thousands of copyrighted Hollywood movies. In June 2011, The Pirate Bay reported that it had about 5 m illion r egistered u s ers, a nd 25 m illion n on-registered u sers ( so-called â€Å"free riders â€Å"). To p ut t hat n umber i n p e rsp ec tive, c onsider t hat i t is n early t hr ee t imes t h e p opulation o f S weden i tself (9 m illion).T he P irate Bay is r egularly i n t he t op 100 m ost p opular Web sites i n t he w orld, a nd r eac h es 1 % o f t he global I nt e rn et popula ­ tion, according to I nternet a nalysts i n 2 0ll. I n S weden, Norway, a nd t he Ne therlands, i t o ften r anks a s o ne o f t he t op 10 s ites. T his d espit e t he fac t t hat TPB h as b een s ubjected t o r epeated l egal effort s to s hut i t do wn . I t b ills itself a s â€Å"the world's m ost r esilient b ittorrent site. † But t he h attIe is far f rom over.T he I nternet i s b ecoming a t ough p lace f or m usic a nd v ideo p irates to m ak e a liv in g i n p art b e c aus e o f e nforce ­ ment a ctions, b ut m ore i mportantly b ecause o f new m obile a nd w ireless t echnologies t hat e nable h igh-quality c ontent to b e s treamed for j ust a s mall fee. Q. search Torrents I ~ I ~ 1::rt. J.!! 9! I! I ~ 1D! R..! 92 How d o I clo wn'o. d? == ­ F irst s ome b ackground. T he P irate Bay is p art o f a E uropean s ocial a nd p olitical m ovement t hat o pposes c opyrighted c ontent a nd d emands t hat m usic, v ideos, TV shows, a nd o ther d igital c ontent b e f ree a nd u nrestricted.I n t he w ords o f t he P irate Party, â€Å"the P irate B ay is a u nique p latform for d istributing c ulture b etween r egular p eople a nd i ndependent a rtists, a nd t hat's s omething w e w ant to p res erve. † I n a u nique t wist o n p rior e fforts to p rovide â€Å"free† m usic, T he P irate Bay d oes n ot o perate a d atabase o f c opyrighted c ontent. N either d oes i t o perate a n etwork o f c omputers o wned b y † members† w ho s tore t he c ontent, n or c reate, o wn, o r d istribute s oftware ( like BitTorrent a nd m ost o ther s o-called P2P n etworks) t hat p ermit s uch n etworks t o e xist i n t he f irst place.T hese w ere t he o ld t echniques for r ipping o ff m usic. I nstead, T he P irate Bay s imply p rovides a s earch e ngine t hat r esponds to u ser q ueries for m usic t racks, o r s pecific m ovie t itles, a nd g enerates a l ist o f s earch r esults t hat i nclude P2P n etworks a round t he w orld w here t he t itles c an b e f ound. By click ­ ing o n a s elected l ink, u sers g ain a ccess t o t he c opyrighted c ontent, b ut o nly a fter d ownloading s oftware a nd o ther files f rom t hat P2P n etwork. Voila' â€Å"No body, n o c rime. T he P irate Bay j ust l inks i ts u sers to s tolen m edia files. W hat c ould b e i llegal? T he P irate Bay c laims i t is m erely a s earch e ngine p rovid ­ ing p ointers to existing P2P n etworks t hat it d oes n ot i tself c ontrol. I t c laims t hat i t c annot c ontrol w hat c ontent u sers u ltimately f ind o n t hose P2P n etworks, a nd t hat it is n o d ifferent f rom a ny o ther s earch e ngine, s uch a s Google o r Bing, w hich a re n ot h eld r esponsible for t he c ontent f ound o n s ites l isted i n s earch r esults.F rom a b roader s tandpoint, T he P irate Bay's f ounders a lso c laim t hat c opyright l aws i n g en ­ eral u njustly i nterfere w ith t he f ree flow o f i nformation o n t he I nternet, a nd t hat i n a ny e vent, t hey w ere n ot v iolating S wedish c opyright law, w hich t hey f elt s hould b e t he o nly l aw t hat a pplied. A nd t hey f urther c laimed t hey d id n ot e ncourage, i ncite, o r e nable i llegal d ownloading. N ever theless, t he d efendants h ave n ever d enied t heirs w as a c ommercial e nterprise.D espite all t he t alk b y t he P irate P arty c alling for t he free, u nfettered s pread o f c ulture, T he P irate B ay w as a m oney-making o peration f rom t he b eginning, d esigned to p roduce p rofits for its founders, w ith a dvertising a s t he p rimary s ource o f r evenue. H owever, i n a r uling t hat p uts to r est t he n otion t hat t he l aw is a lways b ehind t he d evelopment o f t echnology, t he F irst S wedish C ourt i n S tockholm d eclared t he f our f ounders g uilty o f v iolating S wedish c opyright law, a nd s entenced e ach t o o ne y ear i n p rison a nd p ayment o f $3. m illion i n r estitution to t he p laintiffs, all S wedish d ivisions o fthe m ajor r ecord l abel f irms ( Warner Music, Sony, a nd EMI G roup a mong t hem). T he c ourt s aid â€Å"By p roviding a w ebsite w ith † . w ell-developed s earch f unc ­ tions, e asy u ploading a nd s torage possi bilities, a nd w ith a t racker l inked to t he w eb ­ site, t he a ccused h ave i ncited t he c rimes t hat t he file s harers h ave c ommitted. † T he c ourt a lso s aid t hat t he f our d efendants h ad b een a ware o f t he fact t hat c opyrighted m aterial w as s hared w ith t he h elp o f t heir site.T he p rison s entence w as j ustified b y † extensive accessibility o f o thers' c opyrights a nd t he fact t hat t he o peration w as c on ­ ducted c ommercially a nd i n a n o rganized f ashion. † I n o ther w ords, t he c ourt b elieved t he d efendants w ere e ngaged i n a c ommercial e nterprise, t he b asis o f w hich w as e ncouraging v isitors to v iolate t he c opyrights o f o wners. I n fact, t he p rimary p urpose o f T he P irate B ay w as to violate c opyrights i n o rder to m ake m oney for t he o wners ( commercial i ntent). Enable,† â€Å"induce,† a nd † encourage† c opyright i nfringement a nd † intent to sellà ¢â‚¬  a re k ey w ords i n t his r uling a nd T he P irate Bay case. T hese c oncepts g rounded i n W estern l aw a re n ot â€Å"disabled† b y n ew t echnology, b ut i nstead c an b e, a nd are, e xtensible to n ew t echnologies, a nd u sed to s hape t echnology t o society's n eeds a nd w ishes. I ndeed, t here's a c onsensus d eveloping a mong p rosecutors a nd c ourts w orld ­ wide t hat i nfringement is n ot j ustified s imply b ecause i t's t echnically p ossible to do i t o n t he I nternet.T he P irate Bay is a ppealing t he c ourt j udgment, h as p aid n o fine, a nd i ts o wners h ave, as yet, n ever s pent a n ight i n j ail. T he P irate Bay Web site c ontinues to o perate i n S weden m uch a s before. Well, almost. I n 2 0ll, t he f irm m oved i ts s ervers i nto c aves i n S weden, a nd d ispersed m ultiple c opies o f i ts p rogram to o ther c ountries j ust i n c ase Swedish police t ry t o confiscate its s ervers a gain. Meanwhile, t he u . S. g overnment p ressured t he S wedish g overnment to s trengthen i ts copyright laws to discourage r ampant d ownloading.I n S weden, downloading m usic a nd v ideos from illegal sites w as v ery popular, e ngaged i n b y 43% o fthe S wedish Inter ­ net p opulation. 1b s trengthen its laws, S weden a dopted t he E uropean U nion c onven ­ tion o n c opyrights, w hich allows c ontent o wners to receive f rom I nternet p roviders t he n ames a nd a ddresses o f p eople s uspected o f s haring p irated files. I n F rance, participat ­ ing i n t hese p irate sites will r esult i n b anishment f rom t he I nternet for u p to t hree y ears.As a result, I nternet traffic i n S weden d eclined b y 40 % , a nd h as s tayed t here. Like t he f ight a gainst t he o riginal C aribbean p irates o f t he s eventeenth c entury, g lobal forces c ontinue t o m arshal a gainst T he P irate Bay. N ot t he B ritish N avy t his t ime, b ut a l oose c oalition o f t he U nited S tates a nd a n umber o f E urope an c ountries .. T he f irm h as b een h ounded b y l awsuits, police raids, a nd c onfiscation o f s ervers i n F rance, Finland, Italy, G ermany, D enmark, I reland, t he U. K. , a nd G reece.T hese c ountries h ave i n s ome c ases r efused to allow I nternet s ervice p roviders i n t heir c ountries to h ost T he P irate Bay, o r l ink to T he P irate Bay, n o m atter w here i n t he w orld i ts s ervers a re l ocated. T he P irate Bay h as c aused E ngland, France, Malaysia, F inland, a nd m ost r ecently t he U nited States, to c onsider s trong i ntellectual p rop ­ erty p rotection l aws t hat w ill p revent d omestic s earch e ngines a nd ISPs f rom l inking to i nfringing sites, o r r esolving t heir d omain n ames. C alled t he P rotect IP Act, t he p roposed l egislation n ow i n t he U.S. S enate i s a n e ffort to s hut o ff t raffic f rom t he U nited S tates to offshore p irate s ites t hat h ave n o s ignificant u se o ther t han e ngaging, e nabling, o r f acilit ating t he illegal c opying o r d istribution o f c opyrighted m aterial i n † substantially c omplete form. † T he t arget s ites m ust b e † dedicated t o infringing. † I n a ddition, t he l aw w ould p ermit i ntellectual p roperty o wners a nd g overnment a gencies to s eek i njunctions a gainst i nfringing sites, p otentially s hutting t hem d own i mmediately u ntil t he i ssues c an b e a rgued i n c ourt.For o nshore sites, t he I mmigra ­ tion a nd C ustoms E nforcement (ICE) a gency a lready s eizes Web site d omains t hat v iolate U. S. laws o n I nternet g ambling a nd i ntellectual p roperty t heft, a nd r edirects t his t raffic to a Web p age h osted b y ICE e xplaining t he a ction. T he P rotect I P Act a nd s imilar l egislation i n E urope is o pposed b y civil l iberties g roups a nd s earch e ngine f irms s uch a s Google.T he E lectronic F rontier F oundation (EFF) b elieves d efining † dedicated i nfringing sites† c ould b e s omewhat a rbitrary, a nd t he l egislation i ntroduces t he p ossibility t hat g overnment a gencies c ould c ensor o r s hut d own Web sites, t hreatening f reedom o f s peech. Eric Schmidt, n ow C hairman o f Google, said i n May 2011 t hat Google will fight all proposed restrictions o n s earch e ngine linking b ecause t hey c ould â€Å"set a disastrous precedent† for freedom o f speech, a nd l ead to censorship similar to t hat i mposed b y C hina.Because Google's s earch e ngine is u sed b y m illions o f people e very d ay to find BitThrrent sites, Google itself is a major contributor to infringement, albeit unintentionally. Meanwhile, t he w orld's largest advertising agency, GroupM, h as k eelhauled T he P irate Bay a nd 2,000 o ther s ites worldwide b y p utting t he s ites o n i ts blacklist o f copyright infringing sites w here it will n ot b uy a dvertising space.Pirating intellectual p roperty is, above all, about t he m oney, as a ny good pirate knows. T h e P irate Bay case is j ust t he l atest i n a saga o f c ourt c ases involving t he r ecord industry, w hich w ants to preserve its d ominance o f c opyrighted music, a nd I nter ­ net u sers who w ant free music. I n 200S, after several years o f h eated c ourt b attles, t he c ase o f Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios v. Grokster, et al. f inally r eached t he u . S. Supreme Court.I n J une 200S, t he C ourt h anded d own its u nanimous decision: Inter ­ net file-sharing services s uch as Grokster, StreamCast, BitThrrent, a nd Kazaa could b e h eld liable for copyright i nfringement b ecause t hey i ntentionally s ought to induce, enable, a nd e ncourage users to share m usic t hat w as o wned b y r ecord companies. Indeed, i t w as t heir b usiness model: steal t he music, g ather a h uge a udience, a nd m onetize t he a udience b y a dvertising o r t hrough s ubscription fees. Since t he c ourt ruling, Kazaa, Morpheus, Grokster, BearShare, iMesh, a nd m any o thers h ave e ither . one o ut o f business o r s ettled w ith t he r ecord firms a nd c onverted themselves i nto legal file-sharing sites b y e ntering i nto relationships w ith m usic i ndustry firms. I n May 2010, M ark Gorton, founder o f t he l argest u. S. pirate site, LimeWire, lost a copy ­ right i nfringement case. I n May 2011, a dmitting h is guilt (â€Å"I w as wrong†), a nd h aving facilitated t he m ass p iracy o f billions o f s ongs over a lO-year period, Gorton a nd h is file-sharing c ompany a greed to compensate t he four largest record labels b y p aying t hem $10S million.T hese l egal victories, a nd s tronger g overnment e nforcement o f c opyright laws, have n ot p roven to b e t he m agic b ullet t hat m iraculously solves all t he p roblems facing t he m usic i ndustry. I n a ddition to t he i ssue o f illegal downloads, legitimate digital music sales h ave so far failed to m ake u p for falling CD s ales revenues. T he o nly h ope for t he m usic i ndustry is to cha nge its b usiness m odel a nd decisively move towards digital distribution platforms. H ere t hey a re m aking s triking progress b ut c ontinue to face r evenue declines.I n 2011, digital m usic sales a ccount for n early SO% o f industry r evenues, totaling $S. 7 billion, u p f rom $1. 9 billion i n 2006. I n 2 m2, digital sales o f m usic will exceed sales from CDs. I n 2011, a nnual r evenue f rom CD s ales is 1ess t han h alf of 200S1evels. Album sales o f 12 o r m ore songs, b oth digital a nd o n CD, a re also d own IS% a nnually o ver t he s ame p eriod. Since 2003, t housands o f r etail music stores have closed, a nd Walmart h as c ut b ack s helf s pace devoted to CDs a nd n ow c arries only t he t op titles.As CD sales o f complete albums p lummet, o nline m usic s ales o f singles are soar ­ ing rapidly, l ed b y iThnes. Sales o f digital m usic a t iThnes, Rhapsody, a nd e Music have b een growing a t a bout SO% p er y ear s ince 2006. Apple dominates t he m usical d ownload s cene a nd h as b ecome t he l argest retailer o f m usic i n t he U nited States, – SOURCES: â€Å"World's Biggest Ad Agency Keelhauls 2,000 Pirate Sites,† by Natalie Apostolu, The Register, June 14, 2011; â€Å"Internet Piracy and How to Stop It,† New York Times, June 8,2011; â€Å"The â€Å"Pirate Bay: FiveYears After the Raid,† by Ernesto, Torrentfreak. com, May 31,2011; â€Å"Why Google Would Defend Pirate Bay? ,† by Parmy Olson, Forbes, May 19, 2011; â€Å"The Protect IPAct: COICA Redux,† by Abigail Phillips, Electronic Frontier Foundation, May 12,2011; â€Å"Preventing Real Online Threats to Economic Creativity and Theft 01 Intellectual Property (Protect IP Act) 012011,† United States Senate, 112th Congress, 1st Session, 2011; â€Å"Pirate Bay Keeps Sinking: Another Law Suit Coming,† by Stan Schroeder, mashable. com, June 22, 2010; â€Å"Idea Man 01 LineWire at aCrossroads,† by Joseph Plambeck, New York Times, May 23, 2010; â€Å"Pirate Bay Sunk by Hollywood Injunction For Now,† by Charles Arthur, The Guardian, May 17 2010; â€Å"British PutTeeth in Anti ­ Piracy Proposal,† by Eric Planner, New York Times, March 14,2010; â€Å"How Pandora Slipped Past the Junkyard,† by Claire Cain Miller, New York Times, March 7, 2010. r eplacing Walmart. By 2011, t he i Thnes Store h ad s old o ver 15 billion songs, 450 million TV shows, a nd o ver 100 million movies, m aking i t t he w orld's m ost p opular o nline m usic, TV, a nd m ovie store.Its r evenues a re u p 75% i n t he l ast year. Driving t his p erformance, o f course, are t he s ales o f its various i-devices. By mid-2011, Apple h ad s old over 300 million iPods (all models), over 125 million iPhones, a nd 25 m illion iPads. A nd a ccording to a s tudy b y A rbor N etworks a nd t he U niversity o f M ichigan, p eer-to-peer t raffic is s hrinking d ramatically, a nd s treaming o f video a nd m usic f rom l egiti mate s ites h as g rown to o ver 10 % o f all I nternet traffic.R esearchers s urmise t hat c onsumers h ave j ust f ound i t a l ot e asier a nd m ore c onvenient t o access videos a nd m usic f rom t hese s ites r ather t han u sing P2P s haring s ites w here a m ovie c an t ake e ight h ours to download, a nd w here d ownloading m usic t racks c an also b ring a h ost o f m al ware w ith t he m usic. I n a ddition, t he w hole i dea o f â€Å"owning† m usic i n t he f orm o f records, tapes, CDs, a nd m usic files s tored o n y our h ard d rive is o ut o f d ate. While s ubscription m odels i n t he p ast d id n ot w ork, t hey w ere l imited t o s treaming m usic t o d esktop a nd l aptop PCs.I n t he w orld o f mobile I nternet d evices, t he i dea o f s treaming m usic all d ay l ong t o y our i Phone o r B lackBerry is m uch m ore a ttractive. I n 2011, P andora, t he m usic ­ streaming service, h as o ver 94 m illion r egistered u sers a nd 34 m illion s ubscribers, 30% o f w hom c onnect w ith s martphones. T he U. K. m usic s ervice Spotify o pened to U. S. c ustomers i n J uly 2011, a nd o ffers its 10 m illion s ubscribers a ccess to m ore t han 13 m illion s treaming m usic t racks t hat c an b e p layed i nstantly b y j ust d ragging t he s ong y ou w ant t o y our i Phone a pp.Users do n ot n eed t o w ait for d ownloads o r c lutter t heir h ard d rives a nd f lash drives w ith files, o r o rganize t he t housands o f s ongs o n t heir s torage devices. However, a d ownload s ervice was a dded i n 2011. I n e ach o f t hese n ew m edia d elivery p latforms, t he c opyright o wners-record c ompanies, a rtists, a nd H ollywood s tudios-have s truck l icensing d eals w ith t he t ech ­ nology p latform o wners a nd d istributors (Apple, Amazon, a nd Google).T hese n ew p latforms o ffer a w in-win s olution. C onsumers a re b enefitted b y h aving n ear i nstant a ccess to high-quality m usic t racks a nd v ideos w ithout t he h assle o f P2P software downloads. C ontent o wners g et a g rowing r evenue s tream a nd p rotection for t heir c opyrighted c ontent. A nd t he p irates? T he P irate Bay a nd o ther p irate s ites m ay n ot b e a ble to c ompete w ith n ew a nd b etter w ays to l isten t o m usic a nd v iew v ideos.Like t he r eal p irates o f the C aribbean, t echnology a nd c onsumer p reference for e ase o f use m ay l eave t hem b ehind. Case Study Questions 1. Do you think The Pirate Bay can continue to survive in a global Internet world? Why or why not? 2. Why is legislation like The Protect IP Act opposed by Google and civil liberties groups? 3. Do you think it is possible to reliably identify â€Å"dedicated infringing Web sites? † What criteria do you suggest? 4. Why does cloud computing threaten pirate sites?

Employer Health Coverage: Cost Control Essay

Health insurance benefits are a large factor that employees consider when looking for employment. Employers are looking to provide insurance that is cost effective for the employer. Choosing what type of insurance to provide can have different effects on the profitability of the employer. Here is a comparison of the cost effectiveness of employer-sponsored health care and self-funded health plans. In employer-sponsored health plans the employer buys health insurance from an insurance company. The human resources department manages the group health plan (GHP) and they negotiate costs and different coverage plans with the insurance company and then select what is offered to the employees. This helps the employer save money by negotiating for deals and choosing what will be offered to employees. The employer can carve out specific items during negotiations, like prescription drug coverage in order to save money. GHP’s also include riders. These are certain options that the employ er doesn’t pay for. Riders are purchased by the employee directly from the insurance company to cover things like vision and dental services. GHP’s have open enrollment periods in which employees choose the coverage options they desire. This is the only time coverage changes can be made. Thus, the employer saves money during the year because insurances coverage isn’t constantly changing. Self-insured health plans are ones where they employer covers the cost of health benefits. This saves an employer money because they can set the premium rate on their claims history. Any money not used towards benefits can be saved and invested. If claims are above projected figures, stop-loss insurance will cover the difference not the company. Self-insured employers, many times will use third-party claims administrators. They are hired to collect premiums and to process and make claims. This saves the  company from the cost of performing these tasks themselves. Provider networks are doctors, health care workers and hospitals that accept the employer health plans. Most are contracted with the employer or insurance company to perform specific services at reduced rates. This saves the company money. Many times, if employees use out of network providers the cost difference is an out of pocket expense for the employee saving the company money. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) limits the ability of insurance companies and employers to deny benefits to employees (and their family members if applicable) because of preexisting conditions. This actually costs the company more money because they cannot deny benefits in most circumstances. Other state laws require employers to have a minimum standard of benefits for employees. This is called creditable coverage. This can also cost the employer more money because they have to adhere to a minimum standard of benefits for employees. Employer sponsored and fully funded insurance are two choices companies have to offer health insurance to employees. There are ways for employers to save money by what they allow to be offered to employees. State and Federal laws also demand certain coverage for employees. This leaves employees with many options to take into account when choosing an employer to work for.